水科学进展

Development and application of dualistic water cycle model in Haihe River Basin: Ⅰ.Model development and validation

JIA Yang-wen, WANG Hao, ZHOU Zu-hao, YOU Jin-jun, GAN Zhi-guo, QIU Ya-qin, LU Chui-yu, LUO Xiang-yu

2010, 21(1): 1-8.

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A dualistic hydrological cycle model(abbreviated as dualistic model) is developed orienting the natural-artificial dualistic characteristic of hydrological cycle in the Haihe River Basin(HRB) under the strong impacts of human activities,which consists of the distributed watershed hydrological model(WEP),the water resources rational allocation model(ROWA) and the multi-objective decision model(DAMOS).A two-layered coupling technique is adopted to realize the function for integrated water resources management analysis.The HRB is respectively partitioned into 11 752,125 and 8 application units for the execution of WEP,ROWA,and DAMOS.The dualistic model is calibrated and validated using the observations from the HRB.The result shows that the simulated evapotranspiration,river flow,flow discharge into the sea,and groundwater flow filed compare well to the observations,which demonstrates the potential of using the dualistic model for scenario analysis of water resources planning and management in the HRB.

Development and application of dualistic water cycle model in Haihe River Basin: Ⅱ.Strategic research and application for water resources management

JIA Yang-wen, WANG Hao, GAN Hong, YOU Jin-jun, QIU Ya-qin, GAN Zhi-guo, ZHOU Zu-hao, YANG Gui-yu

2010, 21(1): 9-15.

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The nine integrated water resources management scenarios in the Haihe River Basin(HRB),comprehensively considering factors of the hydro-meteorology,the South to North Water Transfer Projects(SNWTP),the groundwater overexploitation and the control target of river flow into the Bohai Sea,and the current situation of 2005,as well as two future scenarios of 2010 and 2020 planning year level are constructed using the dualistic hydrological cycle model(abbreviated as Dualistic Model).The results are evaluated through the evaluation indices,including GDP,grain output,evapotranspiration(ET),river flow into the sea,total water use and reduced groundwater overexploitation.The optimized scenario is obtained and proposed.Building upon the result of scenario simulations,the future water resources management in the HRB is discussed in the context of controlling of ET,groundwater overexploitation,and flow discharge into the sea.The result shows that in spite of having future water supply from the SNWTP,the measures of strict control of water usages and the consumptions are still essential and necessary in order to gradually reduce the groundwater overexploitation and increase the flow discharge into the Bohai Sea,which will ensure the harmonious development of economy and eco-environment in the HRB.

Experimental study on the precipitation-soil water-groundwater transformation in loess hilly region

XU Xue-xuan, ZHANG Bei-ying, TIAN Jun-liang

2010, 21(1): 16-22.

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During the rainfall events in the rainy seasons of 2005-2007,a total of 87 water samples from rainfall events,soil water at 0-400cm layers,surface water in valleys,and ground water(spring water,well water) were collected,the D(deuterium) &¹⁸O(oxygen-18) in these samples were analyzed to interpret the relationship among those water sources in Yangou watershed in the loess hilly region,and the locally meteoric water line(LMWL) was obtained.The result shows that the LMWL of Yangou is similar to that of Xi'an region but different significantly from the LMWL of China and the global meteoric water line(GMWL),both slope and intercept of the LMWL of Yangou are smaller than that of China LMWL and GMWL,the δD &δ¹⁸O content in different water sources are gradually richer in the order of rainwater,ditch water,soil water and groundwater due to isotopic fractionation,and the enrichment of δ¹⁸O is faster than that of δD.The variation of δ¹⁸O and δD values can be used to identify different water sources and to determine the transformation relationships among them.We have found that the minimum values of δ¹⁸O and δD appear to be at the 180-200 cm depth,indicating that the precipitation can infiltrate into the subsurface soil at that depth and the influence of deep soil water on the surface evaporation vanishes at that depth too.The δD &δ¹⁸O values increase gradually below 200 cm depth,which suggests that the influence of precipitation infiltration is weakening and the groundwater component in soil water is increasing.In responding to rainfall the events,the δD &δ¹⁸O values are found to be fluctuated in deep soil at the 380-400 cm depth.This result indicates that the rainfall is able to recharge groundwater through either capillary micro-flow or/and priority macro-flow.The experimental data also show that the time lags between the rainfall events and recharging from the springs are less than 35 days.Further studies are warranted to investigate the time lags between rainfall events and recharging from wells,as well as the recharging amount of groundwater from soil water.

Effects of antecedent soil moisture on hillslope runoff-generation and soil erosion over red soil-mantled landscapes

ZHANG Xiang-yan, SHI Xue-zheng, YU Dong-sheng, WANG Hong-jie, LIU Zhen-bo, ZHANG Wen-tai

2010, 21(1): 23-29.

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The effect of antecedent soil moisture on hillslpoe infiltration processes,runoff generations and soil erosions was investigated through artificial rainfall experiments at two sites with different types of red soil-mantled landscapes.The results show that the higher the level of antecedent soil moisture,the lower the accumulated infiltration is,the smaller the soil absorption is,the more quickly the runoff generation is,and the shorter the duration of runoff and infiltration steady is.The rainfall duration is found to be linearly correlated with both runoff coefficient and infiltration rate at the two sites under low initial soil moisture conditions.The state of equilibrium will not be reached within 60 minutes of the artificial rainfall.Under high initial soil moisture conditions,the Boltzmann equation can be used to describe the relationships between the rainfall duration and the runoff coefficient,the infiltration rate,as well as the soil erosion rate.Low or even invariable soil erosion rates are observed from the quaternary red clay under the slightly dry condition and from the red sandstone under the dry condition during the entire periods of artificial rainfalls.Interestingly,noted that the soil erosion rates at the two sites will increase linearly if the initial soil moisture conditions are swapped among the two cases.

Heat and water transfer processes on alpine meadow frozen grounds of Heihe mountainous in Northwest China

YANG Yong, CHEN Ren-sheng, JI Xi-bin, QING Wen-wu, LIU Jun-feng, HAN Chun-tan

2010, 21(1): 30-35.

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The hydrological process in frozen soil regions is very intensive to global warming.The coupled heat and mass transfer model for soil-plant-atmosphere system(Coup Model) is applied in the headwater region of the Heihe River,with an alpine meadow frozen ground landscape.The observed meteorological forcing and soil and vegetation properties are used in the Coup Model application for the period from September 10,2005 to September 10,2007.A 24-h time step is used in the model simulation.The results show that the simulated soil temperature and water content as well as frozen depth compare well with the observations.The coefficient of determination(R²) of 7 soil layers is 0.95 for the mean soil temperature,and 0.83 for the mean soil water content.An analysis is performed on the simulated heat and water transfer process from the deep soil layer to the upper one during the freezing seasons.At the beginning of the season,the water in the deep soil layer moves upward to the freezing front and releases heat during the freezing process.When the soil layer is frozen completely,there will be no vertical water exchanges between the soil layers,and the heat exchange process is controlled by the vertical soil temperature gradient.During the thawing period,the downward heat process becomes more active with the help of the increase of incoming shortwave radiation at the ground surface.There will be no confinement of the melt water in the thawing front.Instead,the melt water will be quickly dissolved in the soil.Eventually,the frozen soil heat and water transfer process vanishes and the unfrozen process returns.

WAN Xin-yu, BAO Wei-min, WANG Guang-qian

2010, 21(1): 36-42.

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Better knowledge of sediment concentrating processes for reservoir dam sites is crucial in reservoir water and sediment operations.In this study,a flood similarity-based method is developed for predicting reservoir sediment concentrations in heavily sediment-laden rivers.The method uses the main principle of the total flow model for sandy rivers.An approach based on the cluster analysis of historical flood events is employed in the model application.The events are first grouped and then used separately in calibrating the similarity-based method.Thus,the same group flood events will always share the same set of model parameter values in the model applications,and the idea is also applicable to the future flood events.Model validation results show that the sediment concentrating process of reservoir dam-sites can be better predicted with the grouped parameter values.The improvement is especially significant in predicting the peak value of sediment concentrations.The similarity-based method could be potentially useful in the decision making process of reservoir sediment flushing.

3D numerical simulation of fluvial processes in the Shishou bend during the early filling of the Three Gorges Reservoir

JIA Dong-dong, SHAO Xue-jun, WANG Hong, XIAO Yi, ZHOU Gang

2010, 21(1): 43-49.

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A 3D mathematical modeling considering bank erosion is adopted to simulate the fluvial processes of the Shishou bend in the Middle Yangtze River during the early filling of the Three Gorges Reservoir.The locally-adaptive grid system based on non-orthogonal grids is used to calculate the lateral migration in channels due to bank erosion with a composite structure.The observed data of bed deformation from September 2002 to July 2004 is adopted to verify the accuracy of the model,and the calculated results agree well with the measured data.The 3D model can not only simulate the longitudinal bed deformation,but also calculate the lateral migration in alluvial rivers.The fluvial processes in the Shishou bend from July 2004 to December 2016 are forecasted using the 3D model after the filling of the Three Gorges Reservoir,and the calculated results can provide scientific basis for the investigation of river regulation.

Estimation of vertical hydraulic conductivity based on single-ring permeameter falling head infiltration experiment

CHENG Qin-bo, CHEN Xi, LING Min-hua, WEI Ling-na

2010, 21(1): 50-55.

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Based on the Philip's method and the Nestingen's method for soil water infiltration computation,a new modified Philip(MP) method describing the variation of water depth in a single-ring permeameter is proposed for estimating vertical hydraulic conductivity.The MP method was validated on the basis of water depths in the single-ring permeameter from a numerical simulation and experiment results with in indoor troughs.The result indicates that the estimated vertical hydraulic conductivity using the MP method is more accurate than those of using the original Philip method,the Nestingen method,and the Green-Ampt method,which shows prospects for future applications.

Observational analysis of rime condensation on plants over the Gurbantunggut Dsert in China

ZHOU Hong-fei, ZHOU Bao-jia, DAI Qiong

2010, 21(1): 56-62.

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There are long winter seasons with stable snow cover and frequently rime phenomena in the Gurbantunggut Desert in China.Based on the rime observations from November 2007 to March 2008 at the experimental sites on the southern margin of the Gurbantunggut Desert,we find that the average water equivalent of rime condensation on desert shrub crowns is 5.8 mm,about 5 times more than that on snow surfaces,and accounts for 21.8% of the total winter precipitation.The values of rime-fall on plants on the top and foot of longitudinal dunes are 3.8 mm and 9.1mm respectively,which amount to 14.4% and 34.3% of the total winter precipitation,respectively.The rime condensation provides an important moisture input to the shrub cover regions of the Gurbantunggut Dsert during the winter seasons.The maximum wind speed for rime formation is usually less than 3m/s.The most frequent temperature for rime formation range between -15℃ and -20℃,which accounts for 24.3% of the total rime events.The rime-fall significantly reduces when the air temperature falls below -30℃.The rime days are 41% of the rime days occurred in winter when the maximum relative humidity is less than 80%.Low temperatures,high humilities,and low wind speeds,as well as the small diameter of the Haloxylon ammodendron crown branches and needle-like leaves are the important reasons for rime formation and condensation on desert shrubs over the Gurbantunggut Desert.

Least squares support vector machines model for predicting reference evapotranspiration based on weather forecasts

ZHANG Zhan-yu, WANG Sheng-feng, DUAN Ai-wang, WANG bin

2010, 21(1): 63-68.

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A reference evapotranspiration(ET₀) prediction model is developed based on the least squares support vector machines.Weather forecasts are used for ET₀ predictions.The model can be trained with daily weather parameters including quantified weather types and wind grades,etc.Different combinations of daily weather parameters can be tested in the model training processes.In this study,the daily weather parameters are obtained from the Guangli irrigation district during the period 1997-2007.The 1997-2006 data are used for the model training,and a total of 10 daily ET₀ forecasting schemes are established.Predictions of daily ET₀ using each of the 10 schemes are validated with the observations from 2007.The results show that the scheme using the air temperature and the quantified weather types and wind grades as model predictors is able to give the best model performance; and the corresponding statistics are the root mean square error(E_RMS) of 0.5182,the relative error(E_R) of 0.1878,the coefficient of determination(R²) of 0.8648,the I_A of 0.9669,and the regression coefficient(R_C) of 0.9868.Acceptable daily ET₀ predictions are also obtained with other 6 schemes,among which the simplest scheme using only the air temperature as the model predictor can also produce fair results as revealed by E_RMS=0.6576,E_R =0.2332,R²=0.9866,I_A=0.7747 and R_C=0.9680.The latter scheme shows a strong potential in practical applications.

Changing water and sediment dynamics in the Pearl River network and consequences on water and sediment regimes in the Lingdingyang estuary

HU De-li, YANG Qing-shu, WU Chao-yu, BAO Yun, REN Jie

2010, 21(1): 69-76.

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A 2-dimensional model is used to simulate the hydrodynamic and sediment fields of the Lingdingyang estuary(LDYE) in flood seasons of 1978 and 1999.The results show the hydrodynamics and suspended sediment dynamics have been largely altered.The hydrodynamics of the LDYE is strengthened in flood seasons,with the alterations varying in different areas.The flood and ebb tidal velocities increase by 0.10 m/s in the west and east channels and the middle shoal.As a whole,the sediment concentration of the LDYE increases by 0.02-0.05 kg/m³.The high concentration area is enlarged,and the isocline of 0.10 kg/m³ extends from the west channel to the east channel,indicating that the influence of fluvial sediment has enhanced markedly.

Interannual tidal range trend in Pearl River Delta

ZHANG Wei, YAN Yi-xin, ZHENG Jin-hai, WU Hong-xu

2010, 21(1): 77-83.

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This paper analyzes the interannual tidal range trends and the abrupt change points of the 17 main hydrological stations in the Pearl River Delta since 1950s.Autocorrelation has been removed from the original sample using the Trend Free Pre-Whitening procedure before the non-parametric method Mann-Kendall test is applied.The results indicate that there is spatial variability of the annual tidal range in the Pearl River Delta.In the middle and upper reaches,the tidal ranges display significant increasing trend.The upper reach it goes,the more obvious the increasing trend is.While near the estuary,most stations show significant decreasing trend in the tidal range due to intensive human activities,such as land reclamations.The result of the Pettitt test indicates that the abrupt changes of most stations occurred in the 1980s,which is accordance with the period of large-scale sand excavation occurrences in the delta.This implies that sand excavation is the main factor leading to the tidal range variability.The increasing trend in the tidal range also indicates the increase of the tidal dynamics in the delta,which is also one of the reasons for the saline intrusion problem happening in the recent years.

Mechanism study of retrogressive erosion in the lower reach of Dongjiang River

REN Jie, ZENG Xue-zhi, JIA Liang-wen

2010, 21(1): 84-88.

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Since 1980s,the intensified sand dredging activities in the lower reach and the delta of Dongjiang River have caused significant changes in river hydrodynamics,which results in retrogressive riverbed deformations.The mechanisms and characteristics of the retrogressive erosion are studied through analysis of the river bathymetric and the hydrological data collected during the different sampling periods.The finding suggests that because of the large-scale intensified sand dredging in the reach and delta:(1) For the same discharge,there is a significant decline trend detected in the corresponding water level time series especially during the dry seasons,the stage-discharge relation of Boluo station exhibits a tendency to right deflection after 1980;(2) a significant reduction in riverbed altitudes has led to an increase in water surface slopes,this is the first-stage retrogressive deformation,which in turn will cause an intensified riverbed erosion and result in the second-stage retrogressive deformation that will stabilize riverbeds in the long run;(3) the changes in river cross-sections are inevitable and divided into three parts,which are deformed reaches(Dongjiang River network),deforming reaches(Shilong to Boluo),and deformation effected reaches(above Boluo),respectively,according to processes of their changes.

Comparative study on the modeling of tidal current velocity profile in near-bottom boundary layers

NI Zhi-hui, SONG Zhi-yao

2010, 21(1): 89-94.

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A double-logarithmic velocity profile model(DLVPM) for tidal currents in near-bottom boundary layers is established.The DLVPM is achieved on the bases of the hydrodynamic equations for nonlinear unsteady tidal currents and the vertical distribution of Reynolds stresses,together with the Prandtl's mixing length theory and the von Karman's self-similarity hypothesis.The DLVPM is applied in the west Solent a narrow channel between the Isle of Wight and the southern mainland of England and the Xiyang estuary out of Jiangsu coastlines in eastern China.The simulated tidal current velocity profiles are compared to the observations with satisfactory results.A comparative study is then carried out to evaluate the performances of three different velocity profile models including logarithmic,logarithmic linear and DLVPM.The result shows that both friction velocity and roughness height can be better simulated using DLVPM compared to another two simulations in the two model applications.

An anisotropic buoyant turbulence model and its validation

LU Jun-qing, ZHANG Xiao-feng, CUI Zhan-feng

2010, 21(1): 95-100.

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A 3D numerical model combining the Re-Normalization Group(RNG) k-ε turbulent model,the buoyant correction and the non-linear Reynold stress model is developed to simulate density current,and suitable for solving the anisotropic flow problems.The evolution of the density current formed by temperature variance in reservoirs is simulated by the model.The simulated velocity distribution and temperature variation are compared well with the observations.The result indicates that the model can capture the nonistropical characteristics of the density current effectively,simulate the exact flow field as well as the temperature distribution accurately,and predict the time interval between the density current's stratification and diving process precisely.

2010, 21(1): 100-100.

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Generalized expression of potential function in catastrophe model and its application in eutrophication evaluation

LI Zuo-yong, GUO Chun, WANG Jia-yang, LI Yan

2010, 21(1): 101-106.

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Usually,elementary catastrophe models can only result in potential function forms and the corresponding normalization formulae with control variable dimensions n≤4.While for the complex system of n≥5,the system has to be first decomposed into several multi-layer subsystems of n≤4,and then the recursive approach is used to resolve the subsystems.The evaluation results of the complex system are generally given in the context of relative ordering.A generalized expression of potential function in catastrophe model and the corresponding normalization formula with unlimited dimensions for control variables are arrived through observation,comparison,analysis,and induction of the results of elementary catastrophe models.The complex systems with multi-indexes(control variables) can be evaluated and classified using the combined approach of the corresponding normalization formula resulted from the generalized expression and the hierarchical dimension reduction technique.The combined approach is applied to evaluate eutrophication in 21 Beijing lakes.The results are compared with the several reports on the same subject and for the same lakes,showing that 20 out of 21 eutrophication evaluations are consistent with other studies and our generalized expression of potential function and the corresponding normalization formula are reasonable and simple,practical to apply in the eutrophication evaluation.

Phosphorus forms in suspended particulate matter of the Yangtze River

WEI Jun-feng, CHEN Hong-tao, LIU Peng-xia, LI Rong-hua, YU Zhi-gang

2010, 21(1): 107-112.

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Samples of suspended particulate matter were collected from Yangtze River for the period September through October 2006.The phosphorus forms in the suspended particulate matter samples were extracted and examined using the improved technology from the sequential extration method(SEDEX) Ltd.The results show that the authigenic apatite is the dominant form of particulate phosphorus in the Yangtze River.However,the distribution of phosphorus speciation and the primary influential factor appear to be different along the river.From Fuling to Wanzhou,the concentration of detrital fluorapatite phosphorus is high,but the concentration of loosely adsorbed phosphorus and organic phosphorus are low,and the distribution of phosphorus forms is controlled by the amount of suspended particulate matter.In the downstream reach from Xiangxi to Gezhouba,the concentration of loosely adsorbed phosphorus and organic phosphorus are high,the concentration of detrital fluorapatite phosphorus is low,and the contents of phytoplankton and particle sizes in the reach determine the distribution of phosphorus forms.The further downstream reach between Chenglingji to Datong,the concentrations of detrital fluorapatite phosphorus,iron-bound phosphorus and organic phosphorus are high,but loosely adsorbed phosphorus is low.The distribution of phosphorus forms in the reach is affected by the particle size and afflux from the Dongting Lake.The result also shows that the bio-available phosphorus constitutes of 45.56% of all the suspended particulate phosphorus in the Yangtze River.The bio-available phosphorus is more concentrated in downstream reaches than the upstream ones.

Spatiotemporal variations of euphotic depth and its causing factors in Xiaojiang River backwater area of Three Gorges

FANG Fang, ZHOU Hong, LI Zhe, LONG Man, GUO Jin-song, SHENG Jin-ping

2010, 21(1): 113-119.

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Spatiotemporal variations of euphotic depth and its causing factors are investigated for the early impounding stage of Three Gorges Reservoir in the backwater area of Xiaojiang River that is a tributary of the Yangtze River.Water samples were taken at five cross-sections in the backwater area during the period May,2007 through May,2008.The photosynthetically active radiation(PAR) and conventional water quality monitoring indices were derived from the water samples for analysis in this study.The results show that there are no significant spatial variations in the mean euphotic depth at the five sampling cross-sections.However,seasonal variations are strong with the highest value of euphotic depth in the winter and the lowest value in the summer.Regressions between the attenuation coefficient of PAR with the secchi disc transparency and with the concentration of total suspended solids(TSS) show that the two correlations appeared to be strong as revealed by the coefficient of determination R²=0.8619 for the former and 0.764 for the latter,which indicates that the TSS influence on the euphotic depth is significant.The study also finds that there is no significant correlation between the attenuation coefficient of PAR and the chlorophyll-a(Chla) concentration as shown by the low value of R²=0.0113.This result suggests that the euphotic depth,the concentrations of TSS and Chla are all influenced by the river flow and water stage in the backwater area of Xiaojiang River.The spatiotemporal variation of euphotic depth is thus mainly influenced by the sophisticated hydrodynamic and hydrological conditions in the river-reservoir hybrid system.

Effect of environmental changes on nitrogen release from sediments in polluted urban river

XING Ya-nan, RUAN Xiao-hong, ZHAO Zhen-hua

2010, 21(1): 120-126.

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Water and sediment samples were collected from a polluted river in the old town of Suzhou City.The water in the river is classified as poor quality V according to the National Surface Water Quality Standard of China.We examine the regularity of nitrogen release from sediments under different environmental conditions such as the dissolved oxygen(DO) level,the redox potential status measured as Eh level,the pH value,the temperature,and the dredging depth,using the indoor experimental method.The results show that the contents of ammonia-nitrogen and nitrate materials in sediment samples are 277.03 mg/kg and 1.22 mg/kg,respectively,and these contents are 6.743 mg/L and 1.500 mg/L in the overlying water.The experiments reveal that the favorable conditions for the ammonia-nitrogen release from sediments include the anaerobic environment of DO < 0.5 mg/L,the strong reducing environment of Eh <-108 mV,and the acidic environment of pH < 6.0,as well as the high temperatures; while the opposite behaviors in these conditions are observed for the migration and transformation of NO₃^--N.The analysis of sediment samples collected at different dredging depths of 5 cm,10 cm,15 cm,and 20 cm indicates that the minimum release of nitrogen nutrient is found from the sample of 15 cm depth.The effects of dredging depth,DO,and Eh on the ammonia-nitrogen release in sediments are found to be greater than that of pH and temperatures.Our experimental study show that the ammonia-nitrogen release from sediments will be effectively inhibited if high dissolved oxygen levels in the overlying water as well as strong oxidizing potential status in the sediment can be properly maintained.

Progress in geochemistry of regional groundwater evolution

TENG Yan-guo, ZUO Rui, WANG Jin-sheng, LIN Xue-yu

2010, 21(1): 127-136.

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Due to the differences in the regional geological and the hydrogeological conditions and the impacts of human activities and climate changes,the process of regional groundwater geochemistry evolution is complex,and controlled by lots of factors.On the basis of the summary of the current major research achievements,this paper gives some reviews about:(1) the principles and methods of analyzing geochemistry system of groundwater;(2) the hydrogeological,isotopic,element analysis methods and applied techniques in the study of groundwater evolution;(3) the geochemical models and the well-known software of simulating groundwater evolution.And in the future,the complex action of natural evolution and human activity,the interaction of groundwater and surface water,the interaction of microbe-water-rock are the hotspots and developing tendencies.In which,the coupling of the physical,chemical and biological actions would be the significant filed in the regional groundwater evolution.

Review of urban storm water simulation techniques

HU Wei-xian, HE Wen-hua, HUANG Guo-ru, FENG Jie

2010, 21(1): 137-144.

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Urban storm water simulation techniques are reviewed in the context of hydrological processing.In spite of the fact that the established techniques for pipe-network flow concentration have been made available,substantial improvements in the areas of runoff generation and overland flow concentration are clearly desirable.Viewing from the perspective of modeling approaches,the development has undergone from empiricism,conceptualization,to the newly emerged theorization.Both lumped and distributed techniques have been used for model developments and applications.Advantages and disadvantages of these modeling approaches are discussed by summing up the characteristics of representative models for urban storm water simulations; and the gaps in the modeling techniques between China and the world are pointed out.The review also involves discussions of data collection and management,which is important to the improvement of model performances.Finally,the main future challenges in urban storm water simulation are highlighted.

2010 Vol. 21, No. 1

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